Assignment 4_Academic Research and Writing Skills

Assignment 4: Academic Research and Writing Skills

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Assignment 4: Academic Research and Writing Skills

Explain observation and experimentation with help of an example. What are different sources of secondary data information?

Observation research and experimentation are the two major types of study used in research. Observation research refers to a correlation experiment where the research observes ongoing behaviors and draws conclusions based on the data. A good example of observation research is studying the relationship between lung cancer and smoking.

On the other hand, experimentation refers to a type of study where the researcher has the ability to manipulate the aspects of the study before coming up with a conclusion. Hawthorne studies are a good example of experimentation. They involve the study of the impact of illumination on the productivity of an individual. Productivity is first measured and the illumination altered. The researchers then measure the productivity and form a conclusion.

Secondary data refers to data that has been collected by another entity instead of the user of the data. Some examples of secondary data sources include text books, book reviews, magazines, commentaries, internet searchers, and various publications.

What are the essential differences among nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales?

Nominal scale is the first level of measurement. It is the scale used in the labeling variables into unique classifications that do not have a quantitative order or value. Gender, place of residence, and political party affiliation are some nominal scales.

Ordinal scale is the second level of measurement. It is a variable measurement of scale that is used to indicate the order of variables without showing the difference between each of the variables. The level of satisfaction and happiness are examples of ordinal scales.

Interval is the third level of measurement. It refers to a numerical scale where the order of the variables and the difference between the variables can be determined. It comprises of variables that have familiar, computable, and constant differences. Income and temperature are good examples of interval scales (White & McBurney, 2012).

Finally, ratio scale is the fourth level of measurement. It refers to a variable measurement scale that indicates the order of variables and the difference between the variables. It also provides information on the position of zero in the variables (White & McBurney, 2012). 51 to 70 pounds, less than 6 feet, and more than 100 pounds are examples of ration scales.

Discuss Sample versus Census. Describe the differences between a probability sampling and a non-probability sampling.

Data collection forms the basis for statistical calculations. There are two major primary methods of data collection – census method and sampling method. Censure method refers to a method where all members of the population are studied. On the other hand, sampling refers to a method where the information from units that represent the entire population is studied. The findings from this unit are extrapolated to represent the entire population.

Probability sampling and non-probability sampling are the two main methods of sampling. Probability sampling refers to a method where all subjects of the population have an equal opportunity of being selected to act as a representation of the entire population. On the other hand, non-probability sampling refers to a method where the individuals that would form the selected sample for the study are not known. Probability sampling uses random sampling in the selection of the subjects used in the study whereas non-probability sampling uses non-random sampling in the selection of subjects used in the study. This makes the results of the probability sampling be unbiased whereas the results of non-probability sampling are biased. Statistical inferences are derived from probability sampling whereas analytical inferences are derived from non-probability sampling. Another difference between probability sampling and non-probability sampling is that the former is used to test a hypothesis whereas the latter is used to generate a hypothesis (Uprichard, 2013).

Distinguish between:

Direct and indirect questions

Various methods are used in the collection of data in research. The use of questionnaires is one of the most common means of collecting data from the participants of a study. The questionnaires may ask direct or indirect questions. Direct questions require the respondents to provide a simple answer. For instance, the respondent may be asked “What is your age?”, “Do you support the sale of un-labeled GMO products?”, or “Should seniority be used in the selection of judges to be promoted?”. These questions require the respondent to provide a simple answer.

On the other hand, indirect question refer to questions that try to obtain certain information from the respondent without asking the respondent the question directly. The respondent may be asked a series of question whose responses would help in obtaining information that may have otherwise been asked using one direct question. Certain information such as prejudice, discrimination, or honesty may only be obtained using indirect questions. For instance, if respondents are asked whether they discriminate against the opposite sex, most of them they would say that they do not. Therefore, asking direct questions would not provide unbiased information. Obtaining information on sex discrimination would require the researcher to ask a series of indirect question that would measure prejudice. For instance, the respondents may be asked “Do you believe in equal pay for equal positions of both sexes and why or why not?” or “What would you prefer to be the sex of your supervisor?” in addition to other questions to determine sex discrimination.

From the above examples it is evident that direct questions are used in determining the behavior or actions of respondents whereas indirect questions are used to obtain unbiased responses.

Open ended and closed questions

Open ended questions refer to questions that cannot be answered with a simple yes or no answer. These questions do not usually have one right answer. On the other hand, closed questions refer to questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no or a certain short factual answer. A closed question usually has one correct answer.

Research, investigative, and measurement questions.

A research question is an inquiry on a phenomenon or issue that helps in determining the solution to the dilemma or issue. Development of a research question is the first step in undertaking a study. It provides an idea of what should be studied (Cooper, Schindler, & Sun, 2018).

Investigative questions refer to questions that provide detailed coverage of the research question. A survey or other research techniques may be used to obtain the answer to the investigative question (Cooper, Schindler, & Sun, 2018).

Finally, measurement questions refer to questions that are posed to the participants of the study. The responses of the participants of the study are recorded and analyzed to provide insights into the phenomenon under investigation (Cooper, Schindler, & Sun, 2018).

References

Cooper, D. R., Schindler, P. S., & Sun, J. (2018). Business research methods. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Irwin.

Uprichard, E. (2013). Sampling: Bridging probability and non-probability designs. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 16(1), 1-11.

White, T. L., & McBurney, D. H. (2012). Research methods. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.